These geometric patterns are also referred to as Arabesques and are seen far and wide on many buildings. There were also Islamic ceramics, pottery, textiles, glasswork, and metalwork. Below, we look at each time period and the prevailing dynasties and other ruling structures within each. This falls just after Mohammads death, which was in the year 632 CE. Islamic art is a testament to the deeper aspects of the Islamic culture, and Muslim artists have left the world with an assortment of examples, whether it is Islamic drawing, calligraphy, painting, various household objects, or architecture, these all express deeper truths and values. Eid Al-Adha 12. Another example includes the Mosque Lamp (c. 1329 to 1335), which was made for Amir Qawsun. The appearance of the Kufic script is horizontal, and the letters have an angular delineation when written. Please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets (CSS) if you are able to do so. These colors and designs were also used in common household items like bowls, jewelry, and furniture. This was also when the fifth caliph, Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, signed a peace treaty for the caliph Muawiya to rule. What did buildings and houses look like in the early Islamic civilisation? Before prayer, Muslims make sure they are clean, using the washing ritual - Wudu. The S-shaped lines (zlfe)that cross thetu point to the right showing the winds blowing from east to west. Some of the techniques in ceramics included fritware. So, with that in mind, when we look at Islam art, we can understand what drove and inspired Muslim artists to create their works. It was only during the 19thcentury CE when the umbrella term, Islamic art, was used to describe the cultural material from the vast regions of Islam, spanning almost 1400 years. Photo credit: ctj71081. Islamic prayer beads are called subha, from a word which means to glorify God (Allah). While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. Interestingly, my lower performing classes really get engaged in these [lessons] and come away with some profound thoughts! In this ottoman seal, the phrase eternally victorious (in Arabic) is combined with both the name of the leader and his fathers name. Picture from the von Hallwyl familys journey through Algeria and Tunisia, 1889-1890. Here, we see various Dionysiac elements, especially the female figure and various animals with festivity-related objects surrounding her. Enrollment in Curated Connections Library is currently open. Read more. While there were numerous Islamic dynasties and empires throughout Islamic history, the art of each period evolved and developed according to individual regions as well as the overlapping of these different ruling dynasties and empires. KS2 Islam Part of Religious Education 3 learner guides What is Islam? Children can work together or independently to read each card to develop their knowledge of this Asian country. Traditional colours that are often see in Islamic designs include shades of blue and gold. These provide an easier understanding not only of historical accounts but also of how the Islamic World evolved over time, artistically and culturally. Allah is at the heart of worship and aspirations for Muslims, and is the focus of their lives. For ages 9 to 13. Links Bitesize Primary games! The Naskhi script, on the other hand, started replacing the Kufic script during the 11thcentury. The Arabic word mamluksmeans owned or one who is owned. It encompasses a wide range of lands, periods and genres, such as architecture, calligraphy, pottery and embroidery. The Seljuk Empire, also Turkish, ruled around the years 1038 to 1194 CE. We will look at various Islam art modalities like painting, architecture, the importance of Islam calligraphy art, and more. I think it is especially important for kids to study Islamic art and the Islam religion to break down barriers and develop an understanding of another culture and religion. Age range: 7-11. An example is this lajvardine bowl, from 13th century Iran, decorated in gold and cobalt blue (lajvard is Persian for cobalt). As the Islam religion and Islamic culture spread, it adopted some traditions and knowledge from local environments. aurora colorado drug bust; mclaren elva configurator; sunrise and sunset times in december; baltimore county police deaths; how to rotate profile picture in outlook email Art in Islam is dominated by geometric designs usually with patterns, colour, texture and calligraphy. Allow about 3 lessons to complete project. On Friday, the imam also usually delivers the khutba (sermon). We studied art from Africa, Australia, Islam, and more. Islamic glasswork consisted of either glassblowing or glass cutting. Play our cool KS1 and KS2 games to help you with Maths, English and more. Islamic glasswork became one of the most highly regarded forms of glasswork and was even exported to China and Europe. The mosque in Arabic is called masjid. Ask pupils in teams of five (one pupil for each Pillar) to create a page with between 6 and 12 facts on it about each of the Pillars. This includes the Early period, from around 640 to 900 CE, the Medieval period, from around 900 to 1517 CE, and the final, or Later period, which was from around 1517 to 1924 CE. Lastly, the multifoil shape appears more scalloped in design, made by a combination of foils in the arched shape. I love Art The inside of the dome would be decorated in rich detail, almost giving the space a new meaning beyond the material world. Islam - Resources for KS2 | Teaching Resources Islam - Resources for KS2 Subject: Religious education Age range: 7-11 Resource type: Lesson (complete) 35 reviews File previews notebook, 6.7 MB notebook, 4.15 MB notebook, 1.35 MB doc, 88 KB doc, 37 KB doc, 34 KB doc, 25 KB doc, 25 KB The illuminated upper and lower panels contain a text, outlined in gold ink to let the plain folio show through, stating that this surah is the opening of the Holy Book (Fatihat al-Kitab al-Aziz) and contains seven ayahs revealed in Mecca. Watch the recording here. The Five Pillars are declaring your faith in God, prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan and going on pilgrimage to Mecca (also known as Makkah). I teach World History II and would really love to incorporate this into my unit on Muslim Empires, but Im a little nervous that the 9th graders will think its baby-ish? The chronological order is as follows: the Early Period, which occurred from around 640 to 900 CE; the Medieval period, which occurred from around 900 to 1517 CE; and the final, or Later period, which occurred from around 1517 to 1924 CE. Ilkhanid Medallion, circular piece of silk with Mongol images, Iran or Iraq, early 14th century;David Collection, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. The Regenerators Green. Such an example is the Baptistre de Saint Louis (1320 to 1340), which is a basin made of hammered brass with inlays of black niello, gold, and silver. Hajj 11. Kaisan and Naeem share ways that the Quran makes a difference to their lives. certificates for kids free and customizable instant. Unlike Christian art, Islamic art isn't restricted to religious work, but includes all the artistic traditions in Muslim culture. This lets the artist, and those who experience the art, get closer to Allah. The range of items included bowls, buckets, ewers, incense burners, braziers, candle holders, lamp stands, plates, and more. The Muslim prayer ritual is performed five times a day, always facing in the direction of Mecca. Islamic arts, The architecture, literature, and visual arts of the populations that adopted Islam from the 7th century onward. *Free Bundle of Art Appreciation Worksheets*, the Tughra of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Other forms of art included textiles, especially in the form of Persian carpets, which were utilized in the courts, such as theArdabil Carpet(1539 to 1540). The Mihrab, also called the qibla wall, is a niche or alcove in the wall that points in the direction of Mecca, which is the direction of prayer. The beginnings of the Islamic religion lie with the prophet Muhammad, who was the founder of the religion, and its seminal religious text, the Quran, which was written from the prophets recitations after his religious revelations. Awesome, Akeela! There was also an extensive production of textiles as well as the extensive use of calligraphy, which was an important part of Islam art. Other common features of Mosque architecture include minarets, which are towers attached to the mosques serving different functions. This basin was made during the Mamluk period by the artist Muhammad ibn al-Zayn. During the Mamluk rule, there was also a surge in Islamic art and architecture, especially with the intention to emphasize the grandiosity of the rulers. about islam from the start. In addition to the name and phrase, each part of the ottoman seal has a symbolic meaning (Source). Use this great teaching pack with different engaging worksheets to tell your students all about Muslim artefacts. Just download this varied material, print and hand out the sheets and let the introduction to Islam begin. Islamic Geometric Art Lesson 2. This is from the series: My Life, My Religion: Islam. As the Islam religion and Islamic culture spread, it adopted some traditions and knowledge from local environments. This is from the series: My Life, My Religion: Islam.. It's a broad term that can be difficult to define, as it comprises the art made by the inhabitants, both Muslim and non-Muslim, of culturally Islamic populations. Islamic art is often vibrant and distinctive. This is because of common features in all Islamic art which give it a remarkable coherence, regardless of the country or the time in which it was created. So cool!!! This is a significant influencing factor in what drove Muslim artists to produce artwork, although it was not the sole contributing factor. Discover inventions for medicine, astronomy, and the arts in the early Islamic civilisation. Read more. Try this Islamic art for kids lesson with your students, and let me know how it went in the comments! The Abbasid Dynasty ruled after the Umayyad Dynasty. Always found something useful from your side since years. Other items, such as the 8thcentury CE Brazier, depicted figural shapes like women, satyrs, and birds subject matter of a Dionysiac nature. Arches also appeared like Roman arches and were more frequently utilized during the 8th to 10 Centuries CE in Islamic architecture. Gallery Glass Persian Sun Catcher 9. 1762 view and floorplan of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul;Anonymous Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. The Abbasid Dynasty ruled in Baghdad, which was founded by Al-Mansur, the second Abbasid Caliph (this was after they ruled in Kufa, Iraq). Traditional Islamic art started to develop over time with more influence from European styles, which is estimated to have occurred during the 18thcentury CE. They poured through the art looking for tughras and Qurans and arabesques, and my heart was full of satisfaction and love and wonder. I believe he listens to every prayer. Sara, aged 11, explains why fasting is good: for devotion to Allah, for self discipline and for sympathy for the poor, explaining her religious practice. Dont miss our series from last year, 2016, and 2015! The Five Pillars Of Islam are: Shahada/Shahadah Salah Sawm Zakat Hajj The Five Pillars of Islam for Kids Shahada (or Shahadah) Baptistre de saint Louis(between c. 1320 and c. 1340) by Mohammed ibn al-Zain. Mosque architecture is believed to have originated from the first mosque, the Quba Mosque, which was Mohammads home. Islamic art is influenced byArabic, Persian, Mesopotamian, and African traditions, in addition to Byzantine inspirations. It also includes many repeating patterns. Kid World Citizen 2011. Im really excited to do this with them. **The 12 lessons are broken down into the following:** 1. Turn these information sheets into questions and run an inter-team quiz about the 5 Pillars around your class. The Medieval period started around the 900s CE and lasted until about the 1500s CE. Jug with tulips and carnations. In the BAFTA-winning BBC programme "My Life, My Religion: Islam", British Muslim children explain the beliefs and rituals of their faith. This past Spring, I took an Around the World approach with my art classes. This started with the Fatimid Dynasty, which began around 909 to 1171 CE. It continued to expand into Turkey, and deeper into the India, into north-western China and South-East Asia. Alongside Islam calligraphy, art, and architecture, there was a lot of development in Islamic painting, which took on different formats like miniatures and illuminated manuscripts. The ewer itself is ornamental in nature and would have served the purpose of a vessel for wine for festivals or religious occasions. There are, however, strong regional characteristics, and influences from other cultures are also visible. Please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets (CSS) if you are able to do so. *****Please please please rate and/or leave comments thank you! Columns varied in size, shape, and material. Abbasid 9th-century stoneware, probably from the 830s, from a Tang shipwreck of that decade;Bjoertvedt, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons. Sawm (Ramadan) 9. The above basin depicts inner and outer friezes of various figural and foliage forms, with notable riders on horses who appear to be in the process of hunting while other figures are standing without accompanying horses. Minarets have different shapes and styles. The cultural center during this time was the city of Baghdad which also served as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. There are fountains in the courtyards to offer hydration and cleansing prior to prayer. This notion is especially emphasized by the infinity motifs utilized in varying degrees. A famous example of such a building is the Masjid-e Jameh, or the Great Mosque of Isfahan, which was built by the Malik Shah. Muslim artists drew a lot of influence from Chinese ceramics. The 'Islamic Empire' is itself an extensive term, covering a wide range of geographical locations and time periods, and so the art styles varied a great deal. Architects also utilized the Byzantine-style dome in building layouts. There were other stories that revolved around historical accounts, autobiographical stories, as well as military stories. kids crafts inspiration for children of all ages. One of the oldest Arabic scripts, the Kufic script originates from Kufa, a city in Iraq, from the Nabatean culture. She explains why this matters to her and expresses her Muslim faith. For example, in an instance of possible starvation, it would be considered non-sinful to consume otherwise forbidden food or drink if no halal were available. These are, namely, the Shahada (Profession of Faith), the Salah (Prayer), Zakat (Almsgiving), Sawm (Fasting), and the final, Hajj (Pilgrimage). Other examples include the Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan in Cairo (c. 14thcentury CE); the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, with aMihrab as a stucco carving of the ruler Uljaytu (14thcentury); the Rstem Pasha Mosque in Istanbul with Iznik tiles (16thcentury CE); and known among the largest mosques located in India, the Jama Masjid (c. 17thcentury CE), which is in Delhi. The Arabian city, Mecca, is where Mohammad is believed to have been born, and is considered a sacred and holy city. Islamic art is different because it is not just decorative but reminds the viewer of Allah (pbuh), the name Muslims give to their God. So let us help you. The ottoman seal was used as a signature seal for documents, carved into architecture, and placed on coins during the Sultans reign. Yet Islamic art is unique in its own way. PowerPoint . They can use the clip as the basis for this, gathering further information from other resources - including Muslim people they know if possible. In preparation for ourart project, we studied the ottoman tur (or tughra)which is an Ottoman signature seal, usually of a sultan. Islamic art is the term used to designate the arts from the Islamic world that originated during the 7thcentury CE, although the term was first used during the 19thcentury CE. Ewer inscribed with name and titles of Abu Mansur Izz al-Amir al-Bakhtiyar ibn Muizz al-Dawla, Buyid period, Iran, 3rd quarter of 10th century AD;Daderot, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons. The text is executed in black ink, while red dots indicating vocalization may have been added later. The Seljuks consisted of a strong military force and ruled in areas like Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. However, they were not able to use porcelain due to lack of availability, so Muslim artists created another type of pseudo-porcelain, which became known as fritware. Not only was he one of the Founding Fathers of the US, he also carried out his famous kite experiment to identify the link between lightning and electricity, which later transformed the safety of buildings and ships. This is what makes teaching art so wonderful thank you!! Foundation: Beans, Greens and Tall Dreams; KS1: Are You Incredible? Islamic Geometric Art. It was in the style of an Arabian house from the 7thcentury CE, in Medina, which is nowWestern Saudi Arabia. An Islamic style is seen in mosques but also in Muslim houses and gardens. There was also a cross-cultural influence between the East (such as China, India, Iran) and the West (for example, Europes Byzantine and Classical Antiquity styles). Read more. I feel like Ive only scratched the surface with your site. The patterns are formed from bands that run diagonally, making square shapes with open motifs inside these shapes. It has been one of the biggest exhibitions showcasing the works of hundreds of Middle East artists and their perspectives. We will also see the intricate craftsmanship of the Islamic motifs in other forms like leatherwork, jewelry, carvings from semi-precious stones (also referred to as hardstone carvings) and ivory, different pieces of furniture and household items, as well as materials like silk and batik. 911 lone star season 1 episode 1 watch online. This geometrical art is very much connected to the famous concept of the arabesque, which is defined as ornamental work used for flat surfaces consisting of interlacing geometrical patterns of polygons, circles, and interlocked lines and curves (Chambers Science and Technology Dictionary 1991). We can almost say that it has been all around the world and come round full circle it always returns to what is most valued, and that is the Islamic way of life, the path to God, and living in honor and accordance to what is right. Haram: Forbidden Food and Drinks All of these buildings would be built and decorated in varying ways. This period also includes the construction of famous building, the Taj Mahal (1632 to 1653), commissioned to be built by Shah Jahan, who was the fifth Mughal Emperor. Along with the minaret, this complex is richly decorated inside and out and is one of the best examples of Egyptian Mamluk architecture. Book paintings were common in various regions like Iraq, the Ottoman Empire, Persia, and Syria. The idea is that as Islam is integral to every part of a Muslim's life and makes it beautiful, so Islamic art should be used to make the things of everyday life beautiful. Examples of these include the palace called Khirbat Mafjar (c. 8thcentury CE), also known as Hishms Palace. From Kashan, Iran; The beginning of verse 18 from the 5th chapter of the Quran, entitled, Naskh script: This Quranic fragment contains the first chapter of the Quran entitled. There were also three primary types of buildings built, namely: mosques, madrasas (religiously oriented schools), and mausoleums. Other examples include the castle Qasr Amra (also called Qusayr Amra), which is in Jordan. The Abbasid Dynasty was also known as the Islamic Golden Age as it became a cultural and intellectual center in various disciplines like science, technology, theology, literature, visual arts, music, among others. There are some overall characteristic features that appear in Mosque architecture, although it is important to understand that Islamic architecture also varied widely due to the vast geographic expansion, regional styles, and the time it occurred in Islamic history. Calligraphy, as in this Qur'an manuscript, is a major art form, Detail from a 12th/13th century Persian ewer, Geometric decoration in the Grand Mosque, Kuwait, Detail of an Ottoman velvet floor covering, Fatamid gold bracelet: Syria or Egypt, 11th century CE. The Hijab Sara, aged 11, has decided to start wearing the hijab as she begins. While the older, more religious spaces subscribed to aniconism, such as the shrine in Jerusalem called the Dome of the Rock (c. 7thcentury CE) and the Al-Aqsa Mosque (completed in 705 CE), other spaces that belonged to sovereigns and their private homes chose to include humans and animal figures. Pages from an illustrated manuscript of the Shah Namah that may have belonged to Jahangir, c. 1570;See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. We see this in many contemporary exhibitions housing Islamic paintings from the Middle East. Other examples include the gold Fatimid armlet (11thcentury CE), which is inscribed with a well-meaning message. It houses various frescoes on the walls depicting a variety of scenes like hunting, women, and some animals. Learn how your comment data is processed. The Pattern in Islamic Art website offers an archive of over 4000 images of patterns and other design features drawn from the rich cultural heritage of the Islamic world. These are only several examples among many other types of the Kufic script. syria s next generation bbc news. Geometric Paper Tiles Art 4. One such feature is the Sahn, which is the large courtyard. The veneration of the Islamic religion and its traditions underpin almost all of Islam art with the primary holy text, the Quran, serving as a guidepost for Muslim artists. Within 100 years, Islam had spread westward as far as Spain and eastward to the Indus Valley. 'Islamic Art' is the term used to describe all artwork created in the Islamic Empire. It was not restricted to only Muslim artists making religious artworks, but all art forms and non-Muslim artists under this designating term. This post is the second of a few explaining exciting art ideas that you could do with KS2 children, linking with the RE topic of Islam. Once the book was completed, the Islamic paintings would be done by various artists. The Five Pillars of Islam are the most important Muslim practices. Islamic art traditionally features geometric designs, using shapes such as squares, rectangles, triangles, and circles. The use of patterns is part of the way that Islamic art represents nature and objects by their spiritual qualities, not their physical and material qualities. prayer. Islamic Art and Culture - A Resource for Teachers - 64 page booklet: National Gallery of Art, Washington, but working with exhibition from the V&A. Hello again Blwyddyn 5! So Islamic art focuses on the spiritual representation of objects and beings, and not their physical qualities. Abstract geometrical forms were favored in mosques, based on mathematical shapes and forms, because they encourage spiritual contemplation. Islamic Prayer 7. It is believed that this style originated during the 13thcentury CE when the Mongols infiltrated the Islamic culture, and as a result, the Ilkhanid Dynasty is where the first Persian books started. Islamic miniatures also developed alongside illuminated manuscripts, becoming a popular form of Islamic painting. The inscription reads, Use this in good health, master, for many good years happily. Naskh script: This Quranic fragment contains the first chapter of the Quran entitled al-Fatihah (The Opening). It took on the forms of pottery and tiles, which adorned many of the architectural structures. More pdf templates for kids: asix-pointed star, an8-pointed star, ahexagonand anoctagon. Geometric art in the ceramic tiles is extremely sophisticated, requiring scientific and mathematical precision, with imagination and creativity. islam for ks1 and ks2 . I would like to learn this form of Art please to teach my young learners islamic art ks2 bbc. Illustrated books were usually commissioned by the royal courts and aristocrats as they required considerable financial investments to make. Rageh Omaar Discovers the Rich Traditions of Islamic Art. Discover what clothing people wore in the early Islamic civilisation. Most often the only exterior parts to be decorated will be the entrance and the dome. Islamic ceramic art is important to note here because it became one of the most developed forms of Islam art and culture compared to other cultures. There was also a focus on building architectural structures like Mosques, which were important religious structures. The vaulting is described as non-radial in layout, which was a common feature from the East. 'In the prayer, I ask Allah to guide me. Upper Key Stage 2 Early Islamic Civilisation - NEW LOOK Track the development of the great Islamic city of Baghdad including trading practices and everyday life and compare it with contemporary cities in Western Europe. Filed Under: Art and ArtistsTagged With: best of art class curator. The subject would range from battle scenes, landscapes, and portraits. It's fantastic to use when teaching children all about Al-Hijra. The types of items made varied from common household items of more fundamental and functional purposes to other items utilized for luxury purposes, which would have been produced for the court. , Your email address will not be published. Islamic art can be divided into three chronological time periods for easier understanding and context. This page is best viewed in an up-to-date web browser with style sheets (CSS) enabled. Various natural pigments were utilized for Islamic paintings, after which they would be gilded and illuminated. ***** Creative Commons "Attribution" Reviews. These four Caliphs include the first, Abu Bakr, who ruled from 632 to 634 CE; Omar (or Umar), who reigned from 634 to 644 CE; Uthman ibn Affan, who reigned from 644 to 656 CE; and Ali ibn Abi Talib, who reigned from 656 to 661 CE. This Benjamin Franklin Fact File outlines the life and achievements of Benjamin Franklin, a celebrated American inventor, scientist and diplomat. If you subsequent to this article. KS2 pupils can create their own Islamic geometric art using this fantastic resource, a great way to introduce students to the beauty of Islamic art using geometric patterns. There was a fifth Caliph, Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, but he reigned only for a few months and is not as prominent as the abovementioned four. Other forms of Muslim art included ceramics and decorative arts, especially the Iznik pottery style. Last updated. There is an inscription in Greek on this bucket, which would have been used for domestic purposes like bathing. Akeela. Kids can have a go at . Floor mosaic of the audience room in the bathhouse of Khirbat al-Mafjar, Jordan, 724-743. Sara, aged 11, has decided to start wearing the hijab as she begins secondary school. Islamic art. He further expanded this city with the help of numerous artists, architects, and craftsmen. These buildings and objects now fall under the scope of Islamic art and architecture. The final products ended up being simple and bold, and the students were very proud of the work they did! All rights reserved. Sara, aged 11, describes how the Hajj pilgrimage has an impact on Muslims. Zakah 8. The Mamluks reigned from around 1250 to 1517 CE and were mainly based in Cairo, Egypt, Syria, and other areas in the Middle East. My students were blown away at the intricacies of the patterned designs. To understand Islam art, let us briefly explore how it originated, and what the Islamic religion is. Some prominent examples include the Topkap Palace (construction started in 1459) and the Sleymaniye Mosque (1550 to 1558). English KS2 | Beowulf - Part 1 | BBC Teach - YouTube 0:00 / 5:11 Video unavailable The uploader has not made this video available in your country English KS2 | Beowulf - Part 1 | BBC. Discover the most important and popular foods in the early Islamic civilisation. CC Photo credit: Pentocelo. This introduces the Later period in Islamic history, as well as Islamic art and architecture, among other arts and crafts. Additionally, the domes included the use of vaults to support the structure inside, such as the rib vaulting in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan (11thcentury) in Iran. The art of the Islamic world reflects its cultural values, and reveals the way Muslims view the spiritual realm and the universe. The Five Pillars of Islam 6. We also notice the characteristic bulbous domes on the Sleymaniye Mosque (16thcentury CE), which is an Ottoman imperial mosque, the Taj Mahal (17thcentury CE) in India, as well as the Badshahi Mosque (17th century CE) in Lahore, Pakistan. It is made from Egyptian enameled glass. The Islamic religion is one of the worlds largest practiced monotheistic religions alongside Christianity and Judaism (all of which are also called Abrahamic faiths because they share similar relationships with the prophet Abraham). However, Islamic art is not only housed in mosques and illuminated manuscripts, but it is also alive and well in our contemporary culture. Before then, they always return false. Use this differentiated resource to help your children practise their comprehension skills. Please allow a few minutes for this process to complete. What is Eid. Items would often be made from silver, which indicated a higher status and was influenced by the earlier Roman and Byzantine eras.