Certain letters are handwritten differently, Between Ze ( ) and I ( ) is the letter Dze ( ), which looks like the Latin letter S and represents, Dje ( ) is replaced by Gje ( ), which represents, Tshe ( ) is replaced by Kje ( ), which represents, Lje ( ) often represents the consonant cluster. It is currently used exclusively or as one of several alphabets for more than 50 languages, notably Belarusian, Bulgarian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Macedonian, Montenegrin (spoken in Montenegro; also called Serbian), Russian, Serbian, Tajik (a dialect of Persian), Turkmen, Ukrainian, and Uzbek. In order to Christianize the tribes of the Eastern Europe, as ordered by their Emperor Michael III, he, along with his brother Methodius, embarked upon the herculean task of translating the Holy Bible into Slavic languages. The Cyrillic alphabet is a family of alphabets that are used for Slavic languages. From 1941 the Cyrillic script was used exclusively. Today, many languages in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, and northern Eurasia are written in Cyrillic alphabets. by having an ascender or descender or by using rounded arcs instead of sharp corners. The Turkish alphabet (Turkish: Trk alfabesi) is a Latin-script alphabet used for writing the Turkish language, consisting of 29 letters, seven of which (, , I, , , and ) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of the language. A Bulgarian Treasure. Tatar has used Cyrillic since 1939, but the Russian Orthodox Tatar community has used Cyrillic since the 19th century. We know that Boris welcomed disciples of Cyril and Methodius into the Bulgarian Empire to start literary schools using the Glagolitic script but then the record becomes fuzzy. It has been used in Bulgaria (with modifications and exclusion of certain archaic letters via spelling reforms) continuously since then, superseding the previously used Glagolitic alphabet, which was also invented and used there before the Cyrillic script overtook its use as a written script for the Bulgarian language. It represents the vowels [e] and [], as the e in the word editor. I would say at least seventy percent of people use Latin alphabet, but Cyrillic is the official/primary alphabet and all state institutions are obliged to use it. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Contribute to chinapedia/wikipedia.en development by creating an account on GitHub. Yes, it's Russian, but Russian isn't the only language to use this script. The alphabet used for the modern Church Slavonic language in Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic rites still resembles early Cyrillic. South Slavic Cyrillic alphabets (with the exception of Bulgarian) are generally derived from Serbian Cyrillic. Cyrillic is the de facto script used along side Latin. Not all writing systems represent language in this way; in a syllabary, each character represents a syllable, and logographic systems use characters to represent words, morphemes, or other semantic units. The following list some of these language differences. In other Slavic languages that use the Cyrillic script, the sounds are represented by Ye ( ), which represents in Russian and Belarusian [je] in initial and postvocalic position or [e] and palatalizes the preceding consonant. Capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (categorized as vyaz' and still found on many icon inscriptions today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow, with strokes often shared between adjacent letters. However, putting politics aside, the Cyrillic script is far from new. There are various systems for Romanization of Cyrillic text, including transliteration to convey Cyrillic spelling in Latin letters, and transcription to convey pronunciation. Cue Cyril and Methodius! The Greek alphabet was originally the Greek alphabet with various changes . Over the last century, the alphabet used to write Kildin Smi has changed three times: from Cyrillic to Latin and back again to Cyrillic. Cyrillic is nominally the official script of Serbia's administration according to the Serbian constitution;[43] however, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means. Russian (Russian alphabet), Ukrainian (Ukrainian alphabet), Belarusian (Belarusian alphabet), Bulgarian (Bulgarian alphabet), Serbian (Serbian alphabet), Macedonian (Macedonian alphabet). One of the reasons behind the same is the weird look of some of the alphabetic characters. For those who are eager to learn the Cyrillic alphabet, knowledge of the Russian language can prove extremely handy, as the latter is drawn heavily from the former. Prueba usar letras del cirlico para escribir tu nombre! The script is named in honor of the Saint Cyril, one of the two Byzantine brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who created the Glagolitic alphabet earlier on. Latin is much more prevalent. . Macedonian This page was last edited on 1 March 2023, at 01:54. Sabemos que Boris recibi a los discpulos de Cirilo y Metodio en el Imperio blgaro para abrir escuelas literarias donde se usara el alfabeto glagoltico pero los registros son un poco borrosos. In the 1930s, some of those languages were switched to the Uniform Turkic Alphabet. The name "Cyrillic" often confuses people who are not familiar with the script's history, because it does not identify a country of origin (in contrast to the "Greek alphabet"). [citation needed]. Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. Now Cyrillic scripts are certainly used by speakers of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The letters stand for sounds similar to the English [d] and [t] - the latter sounding really Chinese. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, North Asia, and East Asia. It, and by extension its descendants, differs from the East Slavic ones in that the alphabet has generally been simplified: Letters such as , , and , representing /ja/, /ju/, and /jo/ in Russian, respectively, have been removed. The Slavic languages, spoken by some 315 million people. more triangular, and , like Greek delta and lambda . East South Slavic languages and East Slavic languages, such as Bulgarian and Russian, share common features such as , , and . 200105, O.Ed. 24/05/2021. Among the general public, it is often called "the Russian alphabet," because Russian is the most popular and influential alphabet based on the script. He works as an Educational Content Developer at Duolingo with interests in language policy, education, and typology. Some . Cyrillic is an official or co-official script in the post-Yugoslav of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia, which may become members of the EU in the coming decade. The Cyrillic alphabet is closely based on the Greek alphabet, with about a dozen additional letters invented to represent Slavic sounds not found in Greek. Living Northwest Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets. [4] With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of the European Union, following the Latin and Greek alphabets.[5]. Conventionally, Slavic language is divided into three branches, based on geographical and genealogical principles and extralinguistic features. It was earlier difficult to represent the Cyrillic alphabet on modern computers. When was the Cyrillic alphabet first used in Bulgaria? 1 What countries use the Cyrillic alphabet? July 01, 2013, 01:07:42 PM. Abkhaz is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, Georgia. Latin is going to be the only used alphabet in 2022, alongside the modified Arabic alphabet (in the People's Republic of China, Iran and Afghanistan). The Cyrillic GitHub export from English Wikipedia. Double consonants, called "fortis", are pronounced longer than single consonants (called "lenis"). In order to Christianize the tribes of the Eastern Europe, as ordered by their Emperor Michael III, he, along with his brother Methodius, embarked upon the herculean task of translating the Holy Bible into Slavic languages. In 2018, a law was drafted with the intent to protect Cyrillic and elevate it over Latin as the only official script. The translation was extremely tough due to the presence of many bizarre sounds in the Slavic dialect. The reasons for this switch and the need for it are diverse. Cyrillic was created to bring the lands of Rus under the Orthodox umbrella. Saints Cyril and Methodius "Cyril and Methodius, Saints) 869 and 884, respectively, "Greek missionaries, brothers, called Apostles to the Slavs and fathers of Slavonic literature. . The current form of the Cyrillic Alphabet saw first use in 1708 during Peter the Great of Russia's reign. and long, = palatalization of the preceding consonant, = the second element of closing diphthongs (, , etc. I couldn't find the female equivalent, by my limited knowledge of Russian I would assume it's something like "" (this is a straightforward Cyrillic rendition of Pavel's "girevichka") but the actual Russian noun might be different. Another good way to practice is by writing words in your first language with Cyrillic letters. The Mongolic languages include Khalkha (in Mongolia; Cyrillic is official since 1941, in practice from 1946), Buryat (around Lake Baikal; Cyrillic is used since the 1930s) and Kalmyk (northwest of the Caspian Sea; Cyrillic is used in various forms since the 1920-30s). The purpose of the Worldwide Illustrated Stamp Identifier is to provide a visual tool to assist in identifying the country of origin of particularly challenging stamps. Over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. Letters became distinguished between upper and lower case. The Cyrillic Alphabets also have an interesting story behind their origins. The Cyrillic script (/ s r l k / sih-RIL-ik), Slavonic script or the Slavic script, is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia.It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, North Asia, and East Asia. ", "On the relationship of old Church Slavonic to the written language of early Rus'" Horace G. Lunt; Russian Linguistics, Volume 11, Numbers 23 / January, 1987. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. However, in some alphabets invented in the 19th century, such as Mari, Udmurt and Chuvash, umlauts and breves also were used. For example, some Slavic languages like Czech, Slovak, and Polish use the Latin alphabet while other non-Slavic languages like Tajik, Tatar, and Mongolian use the Cyrilic script! Click Here to see full-size tableThe modern Cyrillic alphabetsRussian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, and Serbianhave been modified somewhat from the original, generally by the loss of some superfluous letters. Two candidate countries, Macedonia and Serbia, also use the Cyrillic alphabet. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. On food packaging made in Russia today Kazakh language is still in Cyrillic, though a planned shift to Latin has been declared. Otra buena forma de practicar es escribir palabras en tu primer idioma con letras del alfabeto cirlico. A great place to start learning is Duolingos own Ukrainian and Russian courses! Bosnia was biscriptal. The literature produced in Old Church Slavonic soon spread north from Bulgaria and became the lingua franca of the Balkans and Eastern Europe. ), but may occur in native onomatopoeic words. More than 300 million people today use Cyrillic alphabet: Russian and nother 11 countries. Cyrillic alphabet, writing system developed in the 9th-10th century ce for Slavic-speaking peoples of the Eastern Orthodox faith. Work on the latest version of the official orthography commenced in 1979. However, over the course of the following millennium, Cyrillic adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reform and political decrees. Cyrillic. Serbian. For the national variants of the Cyrillic script, see, 1780s Romanian text (Lord's Prayer), written with the Cyrillic script, Letters Ge, De, I, Short I, Em, Te, Tse, Be and Ve in upright (printed) and cursive (handwritten) variants. Modern Russian Cyrillic has also been adapted to many non-Slavic languages, sometimes with the addition of special letters. 1931. Nowadays, over 300 million people use Cyrillic alphabet in 12 countries. On this page are stamps inscribed using Cyrillic writing. Buryat does not use , , , , , , or in its native words ( may occur in native onomatopoeic words). The Cyrillic script came to dominate Glagolitic in the 12th century. The Cyrillic script is derived from the Greek uncial script letters, augmented by ligatures and consonants from the older Glagolitic alphabet for sounds not found in Greek. Toma estas letras como ejemplo: Sin embargo, ten cuidado! ), distancing it from the Church Slavonic alphabet in use prior to the reform. Una de las mejores formas de aprender son los cursos de ruso y ucraniano en Duolingo! See full answer below. Started in Bulgaria, it now serves as the official script for nearly 50 languages, including Russian, Serbian, Ukrainian, and Uzbek! Spellings of names transliterated into the Roman alphabet may vary, especially (y/j/i), but also (gh/g/h) and (zh/j). The Cyrillic script (Old Slavonic alphabet) appeared as late as the 9th century, much later than many other alphabets. Please read it in conjunction with the notes below. Between Ze ( ) and I ( ) is the letter, Between Es ( ) and Te ( ) is the letter, The letter Dze ( ), from Macedonian, is used in scientific literature when representing the, = the second element of closing diphthongs (, , etc.) Some of the most major ones were the changes made by the famous printer and publisher Ivan Fyodorov. Just like how in Spanish, you'll see , and in French, you'll see , you'll find some symbols in the Cyrillic script that show up in some languages' alphabets and not others! Try using Cyrillic letters to write your name! is shown twice as it appears at two different locations in Buryat and Kalmyk. Thank you for your time and consideration. Por ejemplo, algunos idiomas eslavos como el checo, el eslovaco y el polaco usan el alfabeto latino, mientras que otros idiomas no eslavos como el tayiko, el trtaro y el mongol usan el alfabeto cirlico. "Sreko M. Daja vs. Ivan Lovrenovi polemika o kulturnom identitetu BiH Ivan Lovrenovi", "SHORT HISTORY OF THE CYRILLIC ALPHABET - IVAN G. ILIEV - IJORS International Journal of Russian Studies", "Cyrillicsly: Two Cyrillics: a critical history I", "Cyrillic script variations and the importance of localisation - Fontshare.com", "Alphabet soup as Kazakh leader orders switch from Cyrillic to Latin letters", "Mongolia to restore traditional alphabet by 2025", "SHORT HISTORY OF THE CYRILLIC ALPHABET | IVAN G. ILIEV | IJORS International Journal of Russian Studies", "Serbian signs of the times are not in Cyrillic", "IOS Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set", "Los problemas del estudio de la lengua sefard", History and development of the Cyrillic alphabet, data entry in Old Cyrillic / , Cyrillic and its Long Journey East NamepediA Blog, "Latin Alphabet for the Russian Language", Transliteration and transcription into Cyrillic, Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 2016 Macedonian protests-Colorful Revolution, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyrillic_script&oldid=1142517105, Articles containing Russian-language text, Articles needing additional references from January 2023, All articles needing additional references, Pages using collapsible list with both background and text-align in titlestyle, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2023, Articles containing Belarusian-language text, Articles containing Bulgarian-language text, Articles containing Macedonian-language text, Articles containing Serbian-language text, Articles containing Ukrainian-language text, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2019, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, The Working Group on Romanization Systems, American Library Association and Library of Congress Romanization tables for Slavic alphabets (, combinations that are considered as separate letters of respective alphabets, like, two most frequent combinations orthographically required to distinguish. About half of them are in Russia. An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written graphemes (called letters) representing phonemes, units of sounds that distinguish words, of certain spoken languages. Additionally, Macedonian features the letter 's' [dz], which otherwise does not occur in the Cyrillic alphabet. In Daniels and Bright, eds. 300 million people And if you want to go the extra mile, you can add some Cyrillic stickers to your keyboard to practice typing. In 1941, Mongolian linguists developed a writing system adopting the Russian Cyrillic Alphabet, which included adding an additional two letters (, ) to the original Russian Cyrillic. Revisions to the existing Cyrillic blocks, and the addition of Cyrillic Extended A (2DE0 2DFF) and Cyrillic Extended B (A640 A69F), significantly improve support for the early Cyrillic alphabet, Abkhaz, Aleut, Chuvash, Kurdish, and Moksha.[46]. In the early eighteenth century, under Peter the Great, the forms of letters were simplified and regularized, with some appropriate only to Greek . Some of Russia's peoples such as the Tatars have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law. Around 1200 CE, Proto-Tai came into contact with another language called Old Khmer; the result was a language now known as Old Thai. In 1998 the government has adopted a Latin alphabet to replace it. Parker Henry is a former K12 ESL teacher, a proud Hoosier, and a lifelong learner. Which is the only country to use the Cyrillic alphabet? People still know and use Cyrillic. Tengo muchos anotadores de mi escuela secundaria llenos con mi nombre escrito como . St. Cyril is believed to have developed a script that is the forerunner of today's Cyrillic alphabet. Which countries use Cyrillic alphabet? Khalkha Mongolian is also written with the Mongol vertical alphabet, which was the official script before 1941. Depending on the choices of the font manufacturer, they may either be automatically activated by the local variant locl feature for text tagged with an appropriate language code, or the author needs to opt-in by activating a stylistic set ss## or character variant cv## feature. Which EU countries use Cyrillic alphabet? It's the year when Kazakhstan will switch from Cyrillic to Latin alphabet. Today, nearly 50 languages throughout parts of Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia use Cyrillic as their official script. The letters also had numeric values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order, but inherited from the letters' Greek ancestors. Since 1851 at least, the holiday has been known as the "Day of the Bulgarian script" in some areas. After Boris's son Simeon I officially adopted the newly minted Cyrillic script for Bulgarians in 893, it took off! Kazakh can be alternatively written in the Latin alphabet. Your email address will not be published. Northeast Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. By 2025, five out of six Turkic-speaking countries will be using Latin alphabet. Kurds in the former Soviet Union use a Cyrillic alphabet: The Ossetic language has officially used the Cyrillic script since 1937. also adopted Cyrillic alphabets, and during the Great Purge in the late 1930s, all of the Latin alphabets of the peoples of the Soviet Union were switched to Cyrillic as well (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were occupied and annexed by Soviet Union in 1940, and were not affected by this change). Mantn tu racha en Duolingo en ucraniano y ruso y estars leyendo y hablando en cirlico antes de lo que crees! This act was controversial for speakers of many Slavic languages; for others, such as Chechen and Ingush speakers, the law had political ramifications. As of 2019[update], around 250million people in Eurasia use Cyrillic as the official script for their national languages, with Russia accounting for about half of them. A quick calculation shows that about 2.6 billion people (36% of the world population) use the Latin alphabet, about 1.3 billion people (18%) use the Chinese script, about 1 billion people (14%) use the Devanagari script (India), about 1 billion people (14%) use the Arabic alphabet, about 0.3 billion people (4%) use the Cyrillic alphabet and about 0.25 billion people (3.5%) use the Dravidian . The Cyrillic alphabet does of course cover a wide variety of languages and variants. The Slovak alphabet is an . [37] Sometimes, uppercase letters may have a different shape as well, e.g. This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cyrillic-alphabet, Omniglot - History and Development of the Cyrillic Alphabet. The Kazakh alphabet has existed in this form for 78 years. In Microsoft Windows, the Segoe UI user interface font is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8. This table contains all the characters used. The country's authorities plan to make a gradual transition to Latin from 2023 to 2031. It is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, past and present, Slavic origin, and non-Slavic languages influenced by Russian. As of Unicode version 15.0, Cyrillic letters, including national and historical alphabets, are encoded across several blocks: The characters in the range U+0400 to U+045F are essentially the characters from ISO 8859-5 moved upward by 864 positions. Male version is "" (looked it up in Wikipedia). Romani is written in Cyrillic in Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and the former USSR. This is known in Russia as the second South-Slavic influence. In Standard Serbian, as well as in Macedonian,[35] some italic and cursive letters are allowed to be different to more closely resemble the handwritten letters. Alphabets based on the Serbian that add new letters often do so by adding an acute accent over an existing letter. The Cyrillic Alphabet. The modern Cyrillic alphabet is used primarily in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, and Bulgaria. Which Turkic states used the Cyrillic alphabet? The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers. Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Bulgarian row may appear identical to the Russian row. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). At present, the use of the Cyrillic alphabet countries, including Bulgaria, Russia, Belarus, Serbia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, and so on. Bulgarian. The Cyrillic letters , , , , , , and are not used in native Kazakh words, but only for Russian loans. Also, what countries use the Cyrillic alphabet today? The earliest datable Cyrillic inscriptions have been found in the area of Preslav, in the medieval city itself and at nearby Patleina Monastery, both in present-day Shumen Province, as well as in the Ravna Monastery and in the Varna Monastery. It only stands next to Latin and the Greek scripts as the important official scripts in the European Union. After the death of Cyril, Pope Leo XIII canonized both Cyril and his brother Methodius in 1881. The Cyrillic script was used for the Bashkir language after the winter of 1938. All of the peoples of the former Soviet Union who had been using an Arabic or other Asian script (Mongolian script etc.) They developed out of the dialects of Proto-Slavic. The Abkhazian and Ossetian languages were switched to Georgian script, but after the death of Joseph Stalin, both also adopted Cyrillic. The Catholic-Orthodox schism more or less split the country in two: Slovenia and Croatia traditionally used the Latin alphabet, whilst Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia used Cyrillic script. Hoy, casi 50 idiomas en todas partes del este de Europa, Asia Central y Siberia usan el cirlico como su alfabeto oficial. 43 letters were originally provided, being modifications or combinations of Greek characters or (in the case of the Cyrillic letters for ts, sh, and ch sounds, graphemes were based on Hebrew. [44], The Zhuang alphabet, used between the 1950s and 1980s in portions of the People's Republic of China, used a mixture of Latin, phonetic, numeral-based, and Cyrillic letters. The archetypal 33 (or 32, depending on your view of the status of ) letter Cyrillic alphabet is actually AFAIK only used by Russian. Which countries in the EU use the Cyrillic alphabet? It is currently used either exclusively or as one of several alphabets for languages like Belarusian, Bulgarian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Russian, Serbian, Tajik (a dialect of Persian), Turkmen, Ukrainian, and Uzbek. Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentially small capitals (with exceptions: Cyrillic , , , , , and adopted Western lowercase shapes, lowercase is typically designed under the influence of Latin p, lowercase , and are traditional handwritten forms, although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small-caps glyphs.[33]. As of 2011, around 252 million people in . They developed out of the dialects of Proto-Slavic. Thus, unlike the majority of modern Greek fonts that retained their own set of design principles for lower-case letters (such as the placement of serifs, the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules, although Greek capital letters do use Latin design principles), modern Cyrillic fonts are much the same as modern Latin fonts of the same font family. Other character encoding systems for Cyrillic: Each language has its own standard keyboard layout, adopted from typewriters. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. Some letters may come from the same or similar-looking Greek letters, but after years of use and transformation, theyve come to represent different sounds in the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. Historically, the Croatian language briefly used the Cyrillic script in areas with large Croatian language or Bosnian language populations.[4]. 1. 2 How many people use Cyrillic worldwide? Cyrillic is used co-officially alongside the, The Montenegrin language, the official language of Montenegro, is written in Latin and Cyrillic, North Macedonia has two official languages, Macedonian, which is written in Cyrillic, and Albanian, written in Latin. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the 9th century AD and replaced the earlier Glagolitic script developed by the Byzantine theologians Cyril and Methodius. Which country invented the Cyrillic alphabet? The modern Russian alphabet is a variant of the cyrillic alphabet and contains 33 letters. The Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improved computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. The last language to adopt Cyrillic was the Gagauz language, which had used Greek script before. Cyrillic script spread throughout the East Slavic and some South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. It was developed in . Si te interesa aprender alguno de estos idiomas o si tienes curiosidad por el sistema de escritura cirlico y su rica historia tenemos justo lo que necesitas! The new letterforms, called the Civil script, became closer to those of the Latin alphabet; several archaic letters were abolished and several new letters were introduced designed by Peter himself.
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